Viral Marketing of FMCG Using Social Media Essay

Viral Marketing of FMCG Using Social Media - Essay Example Another important area of this study will be primary research. According to me primary research will play an important role in this study. Viral marketing is a new dimension of marketing and there is less number of companies which have actually made use of this marketing tool. Moreover, directly receiving the feedbacks from the companies which employs viral marketing technique to improve business process will help to address the questions in a better way. Hence, I have decided to conduct a primary research with the help of questionnaire and semi structured interview. For this reason I have decided to visit an FMCG company which is already using viral marketing to promote their goods. After a handful of research I found there are very less number of FMCG companies which has already makes use of viral marketing techniques, however companies such as P & g and Unilever uses it to some extent. Hence, for this study I will select Unilever to assess the importance of viral marketing for FMC G business (Lowell, 2012). I have decided to personally visit the company to record the feedbacks of the respondents. In order to reach the respondents I will seek assistance from some qualified person who has prior experience of the FMCG industry. The respondents of my study will be the marketing managers of Unilever. It is believed that the marketing managers will be able to provide information pertaining to the effectiveness of viral marketing for their company. The total sample size for this activity will be 10 and the data collection instrument will be semi structured interview. However, I also believe that viral marketing is a topic which is also related with information technology. Hence, I have decided to approach...After a handful of research I found there are very less number of FMCG companies which has already makes use of viral marketing techniques, however companies such as P & g and Unilever uses it to some extent. Hence, for this study I will select Unilever to assess the importance of viral marketing for FMCG business (Lowell, 2012). I have decided to personally visit the company to record the feedbacks of the respondents. In order to reach the respondents I will seek assistance from some qualified person who has prior experience of the FMCG industry. The respondents of my study will be the marketing managers of Unilever. It is believed that the marketing managers will be able to provide information pertaining to the effectiveness of viral marketing for their company. The total sample size for this activity will be 10 and the data collection instrument will be semi structured interview. However, I also believe that viral marketing is a topic which is also related with information technology. Hence, I have decided to approach the IT team of Unilever, to get further information about the area of concern. The IT department will be mainly approached to know about the technicalities and cost associated with viral marketing. On the basis of the findings a feasibility analysis of viral marketing technique will be carried out. The total sample size will be 10 and the data collection instrument will be questionnaire. Finally, on the basis of the findings I will draw a conclusion by addressing the research question.

Montage and New Wave Film Essay Example for Free

Montage and New Wave Film Essay The differences between soviet montage and French new wave cinema are interesting and many. Both genres of film seek to create contrast between adjacent shots via discontinuity editing, but subtle differences in their editing styles allow this contrast to produce very different results. In French new wave editing is used to both draw the audience in, and push them away, it draws the audiences attention and inspires distaste. Soviet montage on the other hand uses editing not as a method of controlling the audiences focus, but as a way to create ideas. An analysis of the editing in the Godards â€Å"Breathless† and Eisensteins â€Å"Battleship Potemkin† will highlight these different effects. In â€Å"Breathless†, the first use of editing to keep the audiences attention is in the scene where Micheal shoots the cop. In this scene Goddard makes use of editing to twist and distort time. The audience hears the cop tell Micheal â€Å"Stop, or ill kill you† in a calm voice at nearly the same time that Micheal cocks the gun. Immediately thereafter we jump cut to Micheal firing the gun and jump cut again to the police office falling to the ground as he is shot. From a narrative point of view it is understood that these events do not take place so close to each other. The events happen in much too quick a succession to mimic reality. The jump cuts elapse time in an odd uncomfortable manner. It can be argued that this is jarring, and distasteful, but it is exactly this jarring and distaste that makes this scene so fascinating. Rushing through the event which is clearly the inciting action of the film (flying in the face of CHC) yields a certain fascination with this scene that typical CHC could not hope to match. An effect similar to the one described above is present in the scene where Micheal and Patricia track down Micheals money in the taxi. This exemplifies the use of new wave editing to focus the audiences attention on the visual. In this scene, the visual difference between shots is minimal. If one were to imagine it without the jump cuts it would be long and monolithic but the prolific use of jump cuts counters this would-be-dullness. Once again the jump cuts elapse time and quickens the pace of the scene artificially. The audience hears Micheal barking orders at the drive in succession that is faster that he speaks in the story, and they understand that this artificial fast precisely because of the jump cuts and he obviousness in which they are presented. In this way Goddard is able to present a potentially long and dull car ride in the story much faster in the plot. Unlike the previously discussed scene, this scene does not quicken the pace past the point of comfort, it is intentionally fast paced and helps to excite the audience. First lets take the Odessa Steps scene from â€Å"Battleship Potemkin†. This scene feels almost as if it is a CHC film. Shots are spliced together smoothly and invisibly. The audience is never jarred by

Niels Bohrs Model Of The Hydrogen Atom :: essays research papers

Niels Bohr's model of the hydrogen atom, was the primary reason for the understanding of energy levels.Bohr was able to explain the bright line spectrum of hydrogen. Sparked by the recent discovery of the diffraction patterns, scientists believed electrons could be described as waves. Bohr hypothesized that energy is being added to the hydrogen gas in the electricity form, and then leaving the gas in the form of light. He figured the light rays to be quantized, meaning only certain frequencies of the light rays can be seen. In turn, he reasoned that the hydrogen atoms themselves were quantized and, that they only can exist in certain energy levels. When the atoms absorb specific amounts of energy, they exist for a small period of time in higher energy levels. But as soon as these atoms lose their energy, they move back down to the lower levels of energy. His theory went on to state how the hydrogen atom can move up and down the energy levels, one level at a time, and can never stop in between. Every hydrogen atom is made up of a single electron - proton system. Because the negative electron is attracted to the positive proton, potential energy is created inside the atom.He figured that the farther away the electron is from the proton, the greater the potential energy is inside. In conclusion, since hydrogen atoms emit light energy in specific frequencies, the hydrogen atom must be within a specific energy level and nothing else. The different wavelengths help to determine the different colors emitted from the atom. The greater the wavelength, the faster the atom can be filled and jump to a higher level.Bohr developed his theory after studying the work of Einstein's ideas on the photons of energy.

The Adventures Of Huckleberry Finn :: essays research papers

The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn "Though the novel is entitled The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and the story is told by Huck, the key character in the novel is Jim" The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn has two key characters, one is the slave Jim, the other; the protagonist Huck. Jim and Huck could each be considered the key characters for different reasons, Jim as he is the main representative of the typical slave (slavery being the most important theme of this novel) and Huck for he is the main storyteller. Jim is an important character in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, and without him the novel would be ineffectual. However The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is a novel about the adventures of the protagonist Huck, and it is more likely that the key character of this novel is Huck because we see everything from his view. In a novel which is written as a satiric social comment upon the southern states of America Jim's role as the manifestation of slavery must be a key one. Incidents in which Jim interacts with other characters and their reactions to him are meant to symbolise the wider society's opinions on slaves and the practice of slavery. Jim, is a heroic figure in a book whose main characters consist of liars, cheats and scoundrels. Jim always does the right thing if he can, he always feels empathy for others even if those people show no such emotions for him. The incident at the end of the novel when he saves Tom and risks what he believes to be his own freedom is a case in point. We empathise with Jim because even though other characters suggest that his feelings are least important, whose life is lesser, whose existence is trivial, he manages to stay cheerful, and even kind to those who treat him in this manner. This quality makes him even more heroic, for he is a figure who turns the other cheek, and is kind to others no matter what. Jim doesn't lie or cheat, or steal or gamble and looks down on these activities. Jim is never bitter, he never complains, and never expects Huck to return or even notice what he does for him. However this is no to say that Huck is not heroic himself, his support for Jim, a black man, who Huck has been taught is inferior and as important as a pack horse is astounding, and displays that Huck is strong enough and heroic enough to make the harder choice and choose his heart over his conscience.

Mount St. Helens

Geographic Facts and OverviewElevation: 8, 635 feet (2,550 m)Prominence: 4, 605 feet (1,404 m)Coordinates: 46 °12’00.17†N, 122 °11’21.13†WAge of rock: > 40,000 yearsEasiest access: southern slopeMount St. Helens is an active stratovolcano in Skamania County, Washington, in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. It is located 96 miles south of the city of Seattle and 53 miles northeast of Portland, Oregon. Mount St. Helens takes its name from the British diplomat Lord St Helens, a friend of George Vancouver, who did a survey of this place in the late 1800s.The mountain can be found in the Cascade Range and is part the Cascade Volcanic Arc, a segment of the Pacific Ring of Fire that includes over 160 active volcanoes (Mount St. Helens). This volcano is quite well known for its ash explosions and pyroclastic flows. It is located 45 miles west of Mount Adams, in the western part of the Cascade Range. These volcanic mountains are each approximatel y 50 miles from Mount Rainier, the highest of Cascade volcanoes. Mount Hood, the nearest major volcanic peak in Oregon, is 60 miles (95 km) southeast of Mount St. Helens. (Mount St. Helens)Mount St. Helens is quite young compared to the other well-known Cascade volcanoes (Mount St. Helens). It only formed within the last 40,000 years, and the summit cone (before the 1980 eruption) began rising around 2000 years ago. The volcano is still considered the most active in the Cascades within the last 10,000 or so years, according to the Mount St. Helens report in Wikipedia.Mount St. Helens Eruptive HistoryThe early eruptive stages of Mount St. Helens are known as the â€Å"Ape Canyon Stage† (around 40–35,000 years ago), the â€Å"Cougar Stage† (ca. 20–18,000 years ago), and the â€Å"Swift Creek Stage† (roughly 13–8,000 years ago).The modern period, since about 2500 BC, is called the â€Å"Spirit Lake Stage†. (Mount St. Helens) Collectively , the pre-Spirit Lake Stages are known as the â€Å"ancestral stages† (Mount St. Helens).The Eruption of May 18, 1980Mount St. Helens erupts maybe around once each century. After lying asleep for 123 years, Mount St. Helens again spewed steam and ash on March 27, 1980 – a prelude that put geologists on alert. But what happened on the18th of May, 1980, went beyond what anyone had envisioned. According to Mount Saint Helens History report, a 5.1 magnitude earthquake from inside the volcano triggered the destruction of its north flank, letting down the largest landslide in recorded history and a volcanic eruption equal in power to 500 atom bombs (History). As much as a cubic mile of volcanic material shot upward and sideways.The blast traveled at more than 300 miles per hour with temperatures in excess of 600 degrees F, destroying 230 square miles of forest (History).   Within seconds, the trunks of thousands of 150-foot-tall old-growth Douglas firs snapped like toothpi cks. Ash rained down over 22,000 square miles, blew more than 12 miles into the atmosphere and circled the globe in 17 days (History).   When the ash finally cleared up, the mountain was reduced by 1,313 feet (History). Although the Forest Service and local authorities had worked hard to keep people away, 57 were killed.   Rocks, snow and ice roared down the mountain at enormous speeds (sometimes reaching more than 100 miles per hour). Most large animals on the volcano, like mountain goats, black bears, and thousands of elk and deer (even most fish, amphibians, insects and birds), died. (History)Mount St. Helens before the EruptionBefore the eruption of 1980, Mount St. Helens formed an almost perfectly conical, youthful volcano that sometimes was known as the Fuji-san of America (Eruptive History). According to Volcano World’s Eruptive History page, during the 1980 eruption, however, the upper 400 m of the summit was removed by a slope avalanche, leaving a 2 x 3.5 km hors eshoe-shaped crater now partially filled by a lava dome.The eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980 changed the surrounding environment. Before the eruption, the areas around the mountain were known for its natural beauty. The Spirit Lake basin was said to be coated with ancient trees. The tree rings of these huge 800 year-old trees show evidence of eruptions that date back before the time of the Europeans arrival in the Americas (Biologic History).A few research sites existed before 1980 and they showed a healthy, vigorous forest, growing on the rich volcanic soils typical of the Pacific Northwest (Biologic History). Under the dense canopy, huckleberries, ferns, and mosses grew. A wide variety of animals lived here. Above Spirit Lake, the alpine meadows on the mountain were slowly being overtaken by trees (Biologic History). The alpine meadows supported a wide variety of wildflowers and gnarled trees. Mountain goats were transplanted from the Olympic Peninsula. They were well known fo r their aggressive ways.Sometimes they butted hikers right down the mountain (Biologic History). When people remember Spirit Lake, they always mention how clear it was (Biologic History). Fed by snow and glacial melt, the lake's temperature was normally below 55 degrees Fahrenheit year round (Biologic History). The many types of microscopic plants and animals that fish eat did not do well in this cold water. Because of this, the fish that were stocked never managed to become a self-sustaining population (Biologic History). Some people will tell you that Spirit Lake was overflowing with fish. However, catch records indicate that it was just average for the Northwest. Those who visited Mount St. Helens before 1980, were always impressed by its natural beauty. (Biologic History)Mount St. Helens NowAs amazingly destructive as it was, the May 18, 1980 eruption is just one of many events in the history of Mount St. Helens. Considering the 27 years and renewed volcanic activity, it is surp rising to see how Mount St. Helens continually changes. The past 27 or so years have been characterized by a rebirth.   Within the crater, a new lava dome began rising in 1986, rebuilding the mountain (History).   A new glacier has established itself on the crater floor.  Ã‚   And since early October 2004, a second lava dome has grown at a rate as high as a dump-truck load in volume every second.At this rate, scientists estimate Mount St. Helens could return to its height before the 1980 eruption of 9,677 feet in less than 200 years – less than a blink of the eye in geologic time (History). Remarkably, plant and animal life has revived itself faster than was expected. Beetles were among the earliest animals to return and over 300 kinds now flourish (History). Lupines, members of the pea family, were among the first plants to grow in the deep deposits of volcanic ash.Scientists learned that lupines drive ecological recovery by creating islands of rich nutrients that prom ote establishment of other plant species (History).   Millions of new trees and animal species have also returned to the areas that most of them left in 1980.   Mount St. Helens is back to being a living playground. According to the Mount St. Helens Institute, it has become one of the most  remarkable areas of geological and ecological disturbance and restoration in the world. This country has learned a lot from what happened 27, or so, years ago. We are now better prepared to face another eruption (to avoid the casualties of 1980), and scientists, our other learned friends in different fields of study, and the general public, are coming to experience the remarkable volcano that is Mount St. Helens.The Current EruptionsMount St. Helens came alive again in the fall of 2004 and has continually been erupting. Plenty of news crews and visitors from around the globe have surged to the volcano.   Mount St. Helens has returned to its former grandeur and is now a leading recreationa l area, with more than 500,000 visitors a year. W O R K S  Ã‚   C I T E Dâ€Å"Mount St. Helens.† Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. 22 Apr 2007, 19:46 UTC. Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 24 Apr 2007 ;https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mount_St._Helens;oldid=124937639;

Why You Shouldnt Drop Out of High School Essay Example

Why You Shouldnt Drop Out of High School Essay Example Why You Shouldnt Drop Out of High School Essay Why You Shouldnt Drop Out of High School Essay Essay Topic: High School Why Does High School Fail So Many? Majority of students decide to drop out because of not having the support they need from their parents or the fact that school is uninteresting to them. Once the students’ self-esteem goes down, the thought of them doing well in school is impossible. When their self-esteem drops the students may to think â€Å"why even attend school† or â€Å"what is the point of going to class†. Students find it hard to pay attention in class while learning when the material given out is boring. If students start to lose interest in the subject or topic they are learning about, it may lead them falling asleep in class, staring at the clock waiting until class is over, or disturbing another person in class to communicate about something else. Once a student has lost interest in school its highly expected students will not start to show up for class. High school students drop out of school because the teachers don’t make the class more interesting. Students would go in to class and ones it starts the students would start starring into space thinking and using their imagination. Teachers sometimes don’t have that ability to try and get the students more motivated in what the whole class is about. Mr. Brownlee class is a perfect example of why students don’t learn and achieve in school. For my 10th grade geometry class, he would go in class give us a minute to sit down have a seat and then he starts lecturing. Students would go into class late because of how boring it would be, or not making it interesting. Math was a subject to teach students how to work the numbers and how to use them, but he never really made any sense to what he was saying or doing. For the rest of the semester it would just be ditching his class, playing around or slacking on his work because there was never homework. Mr. Bownlee ended up passing the kids without trying on their own and making their grade easier. In my opinion teachers should always make an attempt

Studying Math Successfully with Note Cards Essays - Free Essays

Studying Math Successfully with Note Cards Essays - Free Essays Studying Math Successfully with Note Cards Keeping note cards is a proven method to study math successfully. As an incentive, I will offer up to 3 bonus points per exam for your set of note cards. Points will only be awarded the day of the exam. Please place a card on top with your full name, rubber-band them together, and place on the front table the day of the exam. Make sure you take these with you when youre done. Please follow these guidelines: 1.Create a set of cards that you can refer back to for each exam and at the end of the semester to study for a comprehensive final. 2.Keep them simple, concise, and to-the-point. 3.Each card should only have one piece of information. 4.Work on these daily. Doing homework problems alone is not enough to study math. 5.QUIZ YOURSELF REGULARLY. 6.Use them as a warm-up before class. 7.Make sure your note cards are all-inclusive: formulas, definitions, concepts, procedures, tasks, and examples. 8.Write tasks and procedures IN WORDS so you get used to the instructions verbiage. Examples: What is the Point-Slope Form of the Equation of a Line? Front Write the formula on back (Continues on back) Know how to: Evaluate functions f(x) = Find f( -3 ) Find f( -2x) Find f (x-2) Front Work out problem on back of card How do you find a difference quotient? Front Write out the step-by-step procedure on back Know how to: Analyze graphs From a labeled graph: >>> draw a graph on the card Find domain Range Intercepts Minimums Maximums Intervals of x where the graph is increasing, decreasing, constant Values of x where f(x) = -4 Find f(2) Determine even/odd Front Work out problem on back of card Good Luck!

Enigmatic Crohn’s Disease Essays

Enigmatic Crohn’s Disease Essays Enigmatic Crohn’s Disease Paper Enigmatic Crohn’s Disease Paper Physicians and scientists are always in the search for ways of curing diseases which until this time do not have known cure. One of these diseases is called Crohn’s disease which affects the intestinal tract. Its discovery by three outstanding men has enabled scientific, medical, and public communities to understand the mechanism behind this disease. Crohn’s disease has five types, with no known cause and manifests through various symptoms that can be alleviated through medications or surgery, and involves risk factors and complications. Discovery In 1900s, before the Crohn’s disease was given such name, the public identified it as an infectious disease. Specifically, they knew it as intestinal tuberculosis. But by 1930s, there was no proof about the infectious nature of the disease. In addition, the disease became widely known as Crohn’s disease when Burrill Crohn was not able to prove that there was an infectious cause in 1932. As a result, the search for the cause was discontinued. Due largely of these reasons, the research was concentrated in â€Å"immunology† (Paratuberculosis Awareness Research Association, 2003). In 1932, Burrill B. Crohn, along with Leon Ginzburg and Gordon Oppenheimer, published a medical literature which described the features of a disease which is now known as Crohn’s disease. Burrill Crohn was a gastroenterologist, and the disease was named after him because his name appeared first in the landmark paper (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2007). After 60 years, they have deeply studied the manifestations and natural history of Crohn’s disease but they were not able to know the cause yet. During such time, the three men conducted studies and experiments which gave them a lot of information about the inflammatory process in the bowel. In addition, during the times when they were studying the disease, they assumed that the lesions in the intestine were some form of tuberculosis or other chronic infection. Later on the men realized that the lesions did not have acid-fast organisms. They have also taken materials from different specimens and injected them into animals. However, it did not produce the desired results (Prantera Korelitz, 1996, p. 3). During this period, the men were thinking that there could be an infectious cause. During an interview with these men, Crohn firmly stated that the disease was caused by an infectious agent. They have found that a sulfa-containing drug called sulfathaladine had some positive effects on some patients. However, they did not use antibiotics to combat intestinal organisms. When steroids were introduced, they have seen that it was useful for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). After more than four decades, researchers from the United States, Australia, and other countries started again the search for the cause despite the possibility of coming up with nonexistent findings (Paratuberculosis Awareness Research Association, 2003). Although there was still no known cure, they have found lots of information about Crohn’s disease and the larger group to which it belongs, the inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) Man’s immune system serves as the body’s defense against foreign substances such as bacteria, cancer, and viruses. Researchers have found out that among the people who have Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), the immune system attacks against the gastrointestinal system. However, they are not sure why this is the behavior of the immune system among Crohn’s patients. When the immune system attacks the GI tract, it becomes inflamed (Warner and Barlo, 2006, p. 2). IBD causes chronic inflammation in the gastrointestinal tract which then leads to various symptoms. When the disease progressed, other organs can also be infected other than the intestines. Once IBD is acquired, it becomes a lifelong disease characterized by periods of active disease and periods of disease control. IBD is different from irritable bowel syndrome (Achkar, 2006). In 2006, there were one million Americans inflicted with IBD. This number is split evenly between CD and UC (Crohn’s. net, n. d. ). The rate by which people acquire this disease is 10 per 100,000 people. Researches have shown that for every year, IBD accounts for more than half a million physician visits and 100,000 cases of hospitalization. This disease also infects young people as it develops between 10 and 30 ages. There are small cases of IBD development between 50 and 60 (Achkar, 2006). In addition, Caucasians have a higher risk than non-Caucasians. In addition, Caucasians lead the list of racial groups with the highest risk of IBD. Blacks and Hispanics are next in line, while the Asians have low risks of acquiring IBD (Targan, Shanahan, and Karp, 2003, p. 22). Moreover, whites are more prone to acquire IBD than non-whites. Jewish population is also more prone than those of non-Jewish background. Among Jewish people, those of Ashkenazi Jewish decent are at a higher risk of developing IBD (Achkar, 2006). The prevalence of IBD seems to ascend from north to south. In addition, IBD is less common in developed countries (Targan, Shanahan, and Karp, 2003, p. 22). In Western countries, one in 1,000 and one in 1,500 will have ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease, respectively. IBD is said to be more common in North America and Europe (Kamm, 1999, p. 2). Around one million Americans have IBD today (Eisenhower Army Medical Center, 2009). Crohn’s disease (CD) and another disease, the ulcerative colitis (UC), are both under a larger group of illnesses called inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). However, Crohn’s is also known as IBD (Crohns. net, n. d. ). IBD was rare until the 20th century. By the end of the 20th century, gastroenterologists encountered this illness in the Western countries on a daily basis (Ekbom, 2003). Genetics of IBD Genes is an important factor in the causes of IBD. About 20 to 25% of people have a relative that have either CD or UC. The risk of a person for acquiring either CD or UC is 10 times greater than the general population if the person’s relative has the disease. The risk is 30 times if the relative is a brother or a sister (Crohn’s. net, n. d. ). Past researches have shown that both CD and UC are determined by genetic predisposition and have proven the role of genetic predisposition in acquiring either CD or UC. Genetic predisposition is the best explanation why differences occur between Jewish and non-Jewish populations (Targan, Shanahan, and Karp, 2003, p. 22). Furthermore, empirical data were gathered regarding the familial epidemiology of IBD. The disease seemed to be more common within families. Data also showed that compared to community-wide prevalence, the prevalence of the disease among siblings increases 10 to 30 fold. The prevalence of UC increases among the relatives of those who have UC and the prevalence of CD increases among the relatives of those who have CD. There were also data which suggest the existence of both UC and CD in one family. This incident points to an â€Å"increased frequency higher than just the co-occurrence by chance alone, suggesting an etiologic relationship between UC and CD† (Targan, Shanahan, and Karp, 2003, p. 23). Other studies suggest that a positive family history appears greatly among CD patients than UC patients. In addition, the relatives of those who have CD are at a higher risk of acquiring IBD than those who have UC. This means that in most cases, Crohn’s is often more familial than UC. Moreover, this means that Crohn’s has a more important role in terms of genetic predisposition (Targan, Shanahan, and Karp, 2003, p. 23). Crohn’s Disease Crohn’s disease is one type of IBD whose cause is still unknown (Warner and Barto, 2006, p. 2). According to the outstanding men who conducted extensive study on the disease and whose work gave birth to the term Crohn’s disease, Crohn’s disease cannot be cured, compared to UC which can be cured with surgery (Achkar, 2006). Crohn’s is a chronic disease affecting the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and usually attacks the intestine (ileum) and the large intestine (colon) (Eisenhower Army Medical Center, 2009). It also affects the patches surrounded by healthy tissues in the intestine (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2008). When the disease is not treated sooner, it can affect the gastrointestinal tract from the mouth to the anus (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Causes Until the present time, Crohn’s disease is an enigma to the scientific and medical communities and to the public. There have been many attempts to understand this disease, but there were only few answers. This shows how extensive the nature of Crohn’s disease is. Those who studied Crohn’s assumed that the reason why Crohn’s disease is not fully researched is because it represents many illnesses and its clinical manifestations may be unpredictable. Moreover, researchers attribute the lack of definite causative microorganism to the fact that there is no such microorganism or many microorganisms cause Crohn’s disease (Prantera and Korelitz, 1996, p. 9). However, no one can completely establish the definite cause of Crohn’s disease. Certain theories were made pointing to a faulty immune system, diet, and genes (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2008). Man’s immune system is protected from infections by cells and proteins. One theory about what possibly causes Crohn’s disease indicates that there is an abnormal reaction in the immune system of people with Crohn’s disease, and thus mistakes foods, bacteria and substances as foreign substances (antigens). The normal response of the body’s immune system is to attack these substances. This then leads to white blood cells accumulating in the lining of the intestines. This produces chronic inflammation, which then further leads to bowel injury and ulcerations along the intestines (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). Some scientists assumed that antigens either cause or stimulate the body’s defenses in producing inflammation in the GI tract without control. In addition, it was believed that once the immune system of the person with Crohn’s disease is â€Å"turned on,† it does not know how to â€Å"turn off† at the right time. Symptoms of IBD arise because the inflammation has damaged the intestine (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Despite the theories, scientists are not sure if the abnormality existing in the immune system of people who have Crohn’s disease is a cause or a result of CD. Scientists are constantly faced with the findings of studies which showed that the inflammation in the GI tract is connected to three factors including the immune system, inherited genes, and the environment. Studies also showed that antigens, the foreign substances, are present in the environment. Scientists have also assumed that inflammation may be caused by the body’s reaction to the antigens. Others postulated that antigens cause the inflammation. Another theory is that the anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF), a protein that the immune system produces, causes the inflammation of GI of those who have Crohn’s disease (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). Furthermore, researchers assumed that the environmental factors cause the increasing prevalence of Crohn’s disease around the world. The researchers have also noted the countless experiments done with regards to drugs and diets that did not yield the desired results. This indicates that every approach taken is justified because different patients with different illnesses were treated, with only Crohn’s disease as the only thing they have in common. These perspectives can be viewed in two ways. One, Crohn’s disease is a very complex clinical entity that is beyond man’s comprehension. Two, Crohn’s disease is not a distinct clinical entity but â€Å"represents a syndrome with multiple etiologies that are lumped under one heading for lack of sufficient knowledge. † Either way, both medical and scientific communities are faced with the challenge of determining what causes the disease, the mechanisms of the inflammation, and further developing ways to treat the Crohn’s disease (Prantera and Korelitz, 1996, p. 9). In connection to the possibility of microorganisms as causative factors of Crohn’s disease, certain infectious agents have been under examination to determine whether these agents are etiological agents. A long list of bacteria and fungi and viruses ranges from Bacteroids to Y. paratuberculosis (Prantera and Korelitz, 1996, p. 11). Symptoms The symptoms of Crohn’s disease may be mild or severe. The most common among these are persistent diarrhea, abdominal pain, which is usually in the lower right area, rectal bleeding, fever and weight loss (Achkar, 2006). If rectal bleeding is serious and persistent, it can lead to anemia (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). Diarrhea, on the other hand, is usually characterized by frequent and watery bowel movements (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009), sometimes with blood (Rhodes, 2008). Some patients have experienced diarrhea between 10-20 times a day (Rhodes, 2008). In one study, 90% of the patients with Crohn’s disease had diarrhea (Doherty Way, 2005, p. 669). The authors have found out that stools are characterized as semi-solid or liquid. The bloody diarrhea of some patients resembled those of patients with ulcerative colitis (Doherty Way, 2005, p. 669). In abdominal pain, meals initiate mild colic. The pain can be relieved by defecation. The pain is caused by partial blockage in the small bowel, colon, or both. Patients who experienced complete blockage also experienced vomiting, cramping, and abdominal distention. The usual case is that when both diarrhea and abdominal pain manifest, the patient can experience weight loss, fever, anemia, and fever (Doherty Way, 2005, p. 670). Nausea, vomiting, floating stools (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2008), and fatigue are also associated with Crohn’s disease (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Other less common symptoms include night sweats, abscesses, ulcers, and fissures, and fistulas. Abscesses are collections of pus that develop in the rectal area and can cause tenderness around the anus and fever (Crohns. net, n. d. ). Ulcers and fissures are tears that develop in the lining of the anus. These can cause bleeding and pain during defecation (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2007). Fistulas, on the other hand, are tunnels leading one loop of intestine to another. This loop can also connect the intestine to vagina, bladder, or skin. Fistulas develop around the anal area. When these are present, one can notice a â€Å"drainage of mucus, pus, or stool from the opening† (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Skin problems and arthritis can also manifest. In children, symptoms include delay in growth and sexual development (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). These symptoms can result from complications of Crohn’s disease (Achkar, 2006). There are also other body parts which are affected by Crohn’s disease. Some people can also experience symptoms from other body parts such as redness and itchiness in the eyes, swelling and painful joints, osteoporosis, bumps and other lesions in skin, sores around the mouth, and, in rare cases, cirrhosis and hepatitis. These symptoms involving body parts outside of intestines are called extraintestinal manifestations. These can be the first signs of Crohn’s disease for some people. In some cases, these symptoms appear before a flare up. These symptoms â€Å"come and go. † The time that these symptoms do not manifest can be months or years (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2007). Types of Crohn’s Disease There are different types of Crohn’s disease, depending on the affected area in the GI tract. These types have varying symptoms and complications. The five types are presented below: Ileocolitis. This is the most common of Crohn’s disease which afflicts the ileum and colon (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2007). At least two thirds of those with Crohn’s disease have ileocolitis and ileitis. From a study, many of these patients experienced an indolent course which lasted four years. There were periods of relapses when they use and continue using immunomodulators (Bayless and Hanauer, 2001, p. 339). Diarrhea and abdominal pain are the common symptoms of ileocolitis (Crohns. net, n. d. ). Ileitis. Ileitis generally affects the ileum (Crohns. net, n. d. ). Symptoms that manifest include persistent abdominal cramps or pain, usually at the lower portion of the abdomen. In some cases, a patient may experience diarrhea which can be frequent. Pain is also associated with diarrhea. In addition, fatigue and exhaustion and weight loss can be experienced (Irons, 2006, p. 1). Treatment can include medication, antibiotics or surgery. At times, doctors may recommend a change in the diet (Irons, 2006, p. 2). Complications associated with Ileitis are fistulas and abscess (Crohns. net, n. d. ). Gastroduodenal Crohn’s Disease. This affects the stomach and duodenum. Duodenum is the highest portion of the small intestine (Health Information Publications, 2004, p. 5). At most 13 percent of people that have ileocolonic disease also suffer from gastroduodenal disease. Symptoms that manifest include nausea, vomiting (Bayless and Hanauer, 2001, p421), loss of appetite, and weight loss (Health Information Publications, 2004, p. 5). In addition, patients that suffer from this disease were found to have bleeding in the upper GI tract. There are also fistulas which develop in the ileum (Bayless and Hanauer, 2001, p421). Jejunoileitis. This disease affects jejunum, which is the upper portion of the small intestine (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2007). Jejunoileitis is an unusual manifestation of Crohn’s disease. It usually manifests in young patients. From studies, it was found out that there was a connection between high morbidity and frequent surgical management. In addition, this disease usually coexists with other types of Crohn’s disease. Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea and weight loss (Bayless and Hanauer, 2001, p425). Its symptoms include abdominal pain after meals, malnutrition, and diarrhea (Health Information Publications, 2004, p. 5). Crohn’s (granulomatous) Colitis. This disease affects the colon only (Health Information Publications, 2004, p. 5). It is characterized by deep ulcers from rectum to cecum (Kouklakis et. al, 2007). Symptoms include rectal bleeding, diarrhea, ulcer, abscess, and fistulas. Skin lesions and joint pains are also associated with this disease (Crohns. net, n. d. ). The symptoms can vary from person to person, and patients should know which treatment options are effective in alleviating these symptoms. Treatments include medications such as Aminosalicylates (5-ASA), Corticosteroids, Antibiotics, Immuno-modulators, and biologic therapies, and surgery. Treatment Although there is no cure for Crohn’s disease, there have been recommended treatment to ease the symptoms. Treatment can be in the form of medications, diet, and surgery. These treatment options aim to restrain the inflammatory response (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009), relieve symptoms, and alleviate nutritional deficiencies. In addition, treatments can help control any recurrence. Treatment would also depend on complications, severity of the disease, and the body’s response to previous medications (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). Thus, treatment approach would vary from person to person (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2007). Because Crohn’s disease is chronic, or on-going, sometimes long-term treatment is required (Achkar, 2006). There are several medical therapies that can help alleviate Crohn’s disease. The categories for medications include Aminosalicylates, corticosteroids, antibiotics, immuno-modulators, and biologic therapies (Patel, 2007, p. 2). Aminosalicylates (5-ASA). Aminosalicylates contain sulfasalazine and mesalamine. Mesalamine can control inflammation (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). The most active component of Aminosalicylates is called 5-aminosalicylic acid, or ASA. 5-ASA functions to lessen inflammation in the GI wall. Most of the drugs under 5-ASA are pills taken orally, but there are also suppository forms (Achker, 2006). Patients that have mild to moderate symptoms are recommended this drug, which includes Pentasa, Asacol, Canasa Enemas, Colazal, and Rowasa Enemas. Other forms of this durg, such as Rowasa and Canasa, can be administered rectally (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Side effects of these drugs can range from nausea to headache. In some cases, cramps and gas and heartburn occur. But if aminosalicylates are effective, they can bring the symptoms under control and can prevent recurrences (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006) Corticosteroids. This group of drugs can treat moderate to severe symptoms and can substitute for aminosalicylates if the latter is not effective (Patel, 2007, p. 3). Some people consider corticosteroids as very effective (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). Prednisone, hydrocortisone, and prednisolone are the ones commonly used (Patel, 2007, p. 3). Doctors usually prescribe a large dose of prednisone when symptoms are at their worse. When these symptoms are under control, the dosage is lowered (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). Unlike 5-ASA, corticosteroids need no direct contact with inflammation. Corticosteroids function to create an anti-inflammatory reaction to body areas, even the affected intestine. However, doctors found out that this group of drugs does not maintain remission or control flare ups (Patel, 2007, p. 3). There can be multiple side effects which develop due to high dosages and long duration of therapies. Mood changes, sleep disturbances, increased blood sugar levels, irritability, and increased appetite are early common side effects. Cataracts, acne, round face, osteoporosis are side effects associated with long-term use (Achkar, 2006). Other common side effects include swelling in the legs, susceptibility to infections, depression, blurred vision and hair growth (Crohns. net, n. d. ). Antibiotics. Antibiotics suppress bacterial overgrowth in the small intestine (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). Flagyl is the commonly used antibiotics in IBD. Flagyl can treat infections that parasites and bacteria cause. Flagyl is also used for anal fistulas (Patel, 2007, p. 3). Other commonly used antibiotics are ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, ampicillin (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Metronidazole is usually used to manage perineal Crohn’s disease (Mayo Clinic, 2009). However, the bad thing about antibiotics is that they kill good and bad bacteria. When metronidazole and alcohol are taken together, it can cause severe side effects such as nausea, headache, and vomiting. Some of the uncommon side effects include loss of appetite, rash, permanent nerve damage (Crohns. net, n. d. ). Immuno-modulators. This class of drugs can help decrease costicosteroid dosage and heal anal fistulas. In addition, they can help in maintaining remission (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Immuno-modulators include 6-MP (6-Mercaptopurine), Methotrexate, and Azathioprine. These drugs can substitute corticosteroids when the latter are not effective. Reducing immune cells and obstructing protein cells can lessen inflammation (Patel, 2007, p. 3). 6-MP and azathioprine are taken orally. Their effects are not immediate. Thus, steroids are taken on a short-term duration to help control the disease during the first stages of taking 6-MP and azithioprine. Their side effects include pancreatitis, allergic reactions (Achkar, 2006), inflammation of the liver, and bone marrow toxicity (Patel, 2007, p. 3). Other side effects include susceptibility to infections, loss of appetite and nausea (Crohns. net, n. d. ). Methotrexate, on the other hand, functions by reducing the activity of the body’s immune system. It can also help bring Crohn’s disease into remission. Methotrexate can also be taken orally, although it can also be injected under the skin. Side effects associated with Methotrexate are infections, inflammation of the liver, and scarring in the lungs on rare occasions (Achkar, 2006). Biologic therapies. In 1998, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) introduced a new biologic therapy in the form of Remicade (Infliximab) (Patel, 2007, p. 4). Remicade contains antibody which prevents the immune system from producing tumor necrosis factor (TNF). TNF is a chemical that worsens inflammation (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Remicade is used for patients who have moderate to severe IBD. It is used when other medications are not effective and is given intravenously (Rhodes, 2008). In addition, Remicade works by blocking TNF, which is a part of the immune system. Through this blockage, inflammation in the intestine can be reduced. From clinical studies, it was found out that one or three infusions can bring inflammation into remission state and allow fistulas to heal (Achkar, 2006). Another biologic therapy is adalimumab, which FDA approved in 2007. It is a man-made protein which blocks TNF. Adalimumab attaches itself to TNF and blocks its effects. Natalizumab is another antibody which â€Å"inhibits certain types of white blood cells. † The latest addition to the biologic therapies is Certolizumab which the FDA approved on April 2008. It aims to reduce signs and symptoms of Crohn’s disease (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Side effects of using Remicade include fever, chills, abdominal pain, itching, chest pain, nasal congestion, sore throat, nausea, vomiting, fainting and cough. Less common side effects are skin rash, low or high blood pressure, back pain, pain, diarrhea, and white patches in mouth or tongue. In rare occasions, a patient may experience weight loss, constipation, abscess, and stomach pain (Crohns. net, n. d. ). Surgery The three indications for surgery are perforation, stricture, and bleeding (Norton, Barie, Bollinger, Chang, and Lowry, 2008, p. 1021). In addition, surgery is needed when Crohn’s disease is in a very serious state and the medications were not effective (Achkar, 2006). Other indications for surgery are recurrence of symptoms, worsening of symptoms, occurrence of complications, intestinal blockage, hemorrhage, growth retardation, and carcinoma (Norton, Barie, Bollinger, Chang, and Lowry, 2008, p. 1021). Seventy percent of those who have Crohn’s disease will be required to undergo surgery to remove some part of their digestive tract Achkar, 2006). In some cases, surgery can repair fissures or fistulas. In addition, surgery is required especially if there is an intestinal blockage or intestinal abscess (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2007). Conservative resection is usually the preferred surgical procedure. Surgeries are seen to preserve the intestinal length. However, surgery is only limited to the area where complications arise (Doherty and Way, 2005, p. 672). When the diseased segment of bowel is removed, this is referred to as resection. The process of joining two healthy bowel ends is called anastomosis. Ileostomy can also be preferred if the diseased area is the colon. When colon is removed, surgeons attach the small bowel to the skin in order for waste products to be emptied into a pouch in the abdomen. This type of surgery is done when rectum has been diseased (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2007). Another type of surgery is colectomy, wherein the entire colon is removed when Crohn’s disease has affected the large intestine (Crohn’s and Colitis Foundation of America, 2009). Although surgery can allow symptom-free years, it is not a cure for Crohn’s disease. In addition, certain patients need to have more than one operation because inflammation appears near the area where the affected intestine was removed (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, 2006). Furthermore, those who are considering surgery should first weigh its benefits and risks. Surgery is also not appropriate for every patient. Thus, it is of importance to consult their doctors who had experience regarding Crohn’s disease. Risk Factors Several risk factors have been associated with Crohn’s disease, as shown in Table 1. Risk factors refer to those that make a person more inclined to getting a disease (Warner Barto, 2006, p. 204). Table 1. Risk Factors that are Associated with Crohn’s Disease. Familial aggregation Stressful events Nicotine Early life exposures Smoking Weaning Oral moist snuff Hygiene Oral contraceptives Infections Diet Dairy products Refined sugar Passive smoking Cereals (cornflakes) â€Å"Sheltered child† â€Å"Fast food† Infections Margarine Mycobacteria Baker’s yeast Measles Physical activity Nonspecific virus infections Socioeconomic status Source: Prantera Korelitz, 1996. Familial aggregation. As mentioned previously, those who have relatives with Crohn’s disease are at a higher risk of developing the disease. Previous analytical studies have established familial aggregation as the most established risk factor. There were countless documented cases which established the positive history of IBD in 23% of Ashkenazi Jews in California. There were also studies of monozygotic twins which showed that there was a 58. 3% concordance rate for developing the disease. The same level of concordance rate for Crohn’s disease was found in diabetes and bronchial asthma. The concordance rate was lower for dizygotic twins. The reason why the concordance rate for monozygotic twins is higher is because of genetic and not environmental factors. Additionally, the concordant twin siblings developed Crohn’s disease within two years of each other (Prantera and Korelitz, 1996, p. 63). Smoking. A person’s history of smoking is said to be the â€Å"most established† (Prantera Korelitz, 1996, p. 63) and the â€Å"most important† (Michetti, 2005, p. 50) environmental and external risk factor for the disease. Past researches found out that smoking can worsen symptoms (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2008). Additionally, those who smoke are more likely to develop Crohn’s disease than the non-smokers. There were also empirical data to support the finding that smokers have an aggressive form of Crohn’s disease than non-smokers. However, researchers were not able to determine the exact effects that cigarette smoking has on the GI tract (Achkar, 2006). From the past researches, it was found out that there was no consistent increased risk among those who smoke. This means that smoking is a promoting factor of Crohn’s disease. Smokers who have Crohn’s disease are also seen to be more prone to relapses, surgery, hospitalization, diarrhea, and pain compared to former smokers or nonsmokers. And as smoking is associated with lung cancer, those who smoke and have Crohn’s disease are at a higher risk of experiencing respiratory malignancies. However, there was no association found from the studies done in relation to cancer morbidity and mortality. This added to doubts regarding the smoking’s etiological attributable fraction in Crohn’s disease (Prantera Korelitz, 1996, p. 63). The association between Crohn’s disease and smoking is further complicated because smokers have a lower risk of developing ulcerative colitis and former smokers are at a higher risk. The opposite results of studies regarding the role of smoking in both Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis prompted researchers and experts to assume the possibility of smoking as a determinant of either Crohn’s or colitis developing in an individual (Prantera Korelitz, 1996, p. 63). Oral contraceptives. This is another risk factor of Crohn’s disease, wherein women who take oral contraceptives are more likely to develop the disease (Crohn’s. net, n. d. ). However, there were other studies whose results showed that the causality of oral contraceptive is weak (Crohns. org, n. d. ). One such

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Even though people had been visiting Canterbury for centuries in small groups so that they could respect and honour saints like Augustine, Dunstan and Alphege, however, was it pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas Becket, the murdered Archbishop, which made most the money for Canterbury?Did pilgrimage to his shrine help to make a very wide impact on pilgrimage in England as it brung the majority of pilgrims to Canterbury Cathedral? During the medieval ages Canterbury Cathedral saw its peak years in terms of the number of visitors and revenue generated as well as its downfalls which I would like to explore along with the common criticisms of pilgrimage. R.Finucane begins his book Miracles and Pilgrims by asking why pilgrims in the early middle ages would be drawn to the mouldering remains of a saint. The answer is most likely to be because they wanted a cure for their illnesses. Finucane describes cripples writhing on the floor of Beckets simple tomb1Thomas Beckets death in 1170 had a massive effect on the number of pilgrims that came to Canterbury. After he died in 1170 news of miracles spread almost immediately, not just in Canterbury but in other places around England. For example two days after the killing a Gloucester girl was cured of a head complaint after praying to the martyr2 A monk called Benedict who was responsible for the relics recorded the first set of miracles. The following year another Canterbury monk, William recorded 483 miracles. Between the two monks the total which was recorded was 703 miracles in the first ten years after the Archbishops death. From these results we can see that William recorded a larger number of miracles than Benedict which shows that the news of miracles at Canterbury had spread widely even between the early years of 1171 and 11723. Sarah Hopper also tells us that it is estimate that almost a third of visitors to the shrine were foreign and it is also interesting to note that his shrinew received more foreign pilgrims than any other. This large number of miracles that occurred would have encouraged more pilgrims to gradually come to worship at the shrine of St Thomas Becket and when pilgrims first started to visit the Cathedral to venerate Thomas Becket their experience would be a very ordered process. When they got there, there would be welcomed by a monk who would act as their guide and lead them on a tour which was very well structured. Monks would lead the pilgrims to the North transept which was the first pilgrimage station where Becket was murdered. From here the pilgrim would see a column removed and an altar in it place to mark the spot, they would see two broken pieces of steel that had shattered Richard le Brets swords. This reminds pilgrims of the horrendous nature of Beckets death. However what was achieved by Beckets martyrdom was a better understanding and appreciation of what Becket suffered for his beliefs. Some pilgrims might also go up the stairs, on their knees if they wished to the high altar where Beckets body was left the night of his murder. Ascending this path towards the shrine would have been very symbolic for the pilgrim. The quality of the shrines location was of a very high quality as it was at the highest end of Canterbury Cathedral. This was because by following this course the pilgrims would be enacting not only the last steps taken by Thomas Becket but they would be also on a spiritual journey themselves. The next station they may visit is the crypt where the atmosphere was very different, more sombre and still. There they would see Beckets tomb raised and there would be two oval holes where pilgrims placed their heads or their hand against the stone coffin. In John Adairs book The Pilgrims Way he notes that a foreign pilgrim once wrote that church seemed to be piled on church, a new temple entered as soon as one ended4. This implies that the Cathedral was slightly overwhelming for many pilgrims going from station to station, all of which having their own significance. When they had seen scenes of Beckets miracles in the stained glass windows this would encourage many to filled their lead ampullae at the Wall of St Thomas. This water which could be brought at Canterbury was said to contain some of the saints blood. When Becket died the monks used cloth to salvage some of the blood from the saint. This water was also given to many churches in England. This would also see the spreading of the message about Beckets divine healing power. Was this water effective in miraculously curing diseases? Adair also mentions John who was a chaplain to the Archdeacon of Salop was bothered by an unlpeasant polypus in his nose. It started to cause paralysis he described the sensation of the water as cold as ice, chasing the disease through his body and almost freezing his brain5 after a large sneeze he came across a cherry stone in his mouth. He was healed and walked home and he would not leave the cherry-stone behind as it was his evidence of a divine intervention On 21st Febraury 1172, Becket was canonised by Pope Alexander III which brought a larger number of pilgrims to Canterbury. By making someone a saint this would increase their popularity and make them better known. The cult of Thomas Becket had now officially began and thus leading to more people wanting to make their pilgrimage to Canterbury.One can only assume that Pope Alexander heard about Thomas Becket through news of him spreading because of pilgrims. Pilgrims also came to Canterbury to seek penance from St Thomas Becket. Penace was a common reason for many pilgrims to go on a pilgrimage. This was the idea that if you commited a sin you would carry out a pilgrimage to beg forgiveness at the shrine of a saint such as Thomas Becket. Chaucer (c1340 -1400) described, when a man has sinned openly, of which sin the fame is openly spoken in the countryCommon penance is that priests enjoin men commonly in certain cases, as for to go, peradventue, naked in pilgrimages or barefoot One example of a pilgrim who walked in a sackcloth among pilgrims and also barefoot was Henry II, who was also the most famous pilgrim who sought forgiveness Furthermore he was also the most famous royal pilgrim who sought redemption at Beckets shrine after his men murdered the Archbishop. He walked barefoot from the West gate of the city to Beckets tomb. He allowed himself here to be scourged. This was not an unknown act amongst pilgrims. It was a frequent practice and seen as a punishment for those who were making a penance at Canterbury. The pilgrims would be beaten with rods by the clergy. Pilgrimage can also be seen as a spiritual journey as Langland describes that You must travel , both men and women, through Humility, until you arrive at Conscience: there Christ may know for certain that you love God above all else6. So, this highlights the religious importance behind doing a penance as well. It was mainly local people who would come to visit Beckets tomb up to 1220 when his bones were translated to the new Trinity Chapel which stood on the site of the old Trinity Chapel. However, why did they choose to move his body there? a Canterbury monk explains that it stands on the site of the old Trinity Chapel, where he celebrated his first mass, where he was wont to prostrate himself with tears and prayers, under whose crypt for so many years he was buried, where God for his merits had performed so many miracles, where poor and rich, kings and princes, had worshipped him, and whence the sound of his praises had gone forth into all lands7. These associations with the Archbishop was why they chose to translate his body to the new Trinity Chapel Festivals Celebrated at Canterbury Festivals celebrated at Canterbury would also attract more pilgrims to Canterbury. People would crowd around the doors outside the Cathedral on the vigils of the Translation and of saints Martyrdom. Here pilgrims may spend the night. Examples of activities that pilgrims would do include prayers, devotions, games and music. However, this would also give the opportunity for many thieves to steal from the pilgrims as they would often wander around the large crowds. Beckets translation led to the annual Canterbury fair on the 7th July which was The Feast of the Translation. Many booths and stalls would be opened making a lot of money from visitors. As the Feast of the Translation was set in the summer and not the winter like The Feast of St Thomas of Canterbury has attracted a larger number of pilgrims from further away. It is said that the first jubilee in 1220 gained a sum of à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½1,142 5s 8. This sum was mainly made up of the offering to the saints shrine and also the site of t he martyrdom There were also other factors which affected the revenue which were of a more social and political nature. For example when the Cathedral hosted the Black Princes funeral in 1376 and the crowning of King George and Queen Isabella in Canterbury Cathedral this saw extremely high amounts in these years. The Customary and revenue at Canterbury It was very important for the shrine to be well guarded every day and night because they had many important tasks to carry out. There was a guide of the custodians duties called the Customary which was written by two monks. There were two guards in the Trinity Chapel one was temporal and the other spiritual. In the summer they would get up at five and it would be six in the winter. They would celebrate a daily Mass in honour of Becket at his shrine and the spiritual guard was responsible for this as well as ringing a bell to gather the pilgrims . These guards also had to ensure that the pilgrims were well looked after because many would be exhausted so they would be offered food and refreshments. Before the Feast of the Translation they had to prepare the shrine for the festivities which were about to take place. The Customary also lists the expenditures from the coins that were offered at the shrine. We assume that because of the many people that visited the shrine the Cathedral generated a great amount of revenue. However, Woodruff calculate that even though there were large some of money received by the Cathedral on both of its own Jubilee years of 1320 and 1370 the cellarers expenditures were extremely large and the accounts show an unfavourable balance9. In other words, this emans that more money had been spent than generated at Canterbury Cathedral at this time. The Corona Beyond the Trinity Chapel at the very eastern end of the Cathedral a special unique chapel was added to protect the Corona or Beckets Crown which was a thin saucer of bone that had been sliced from the Saints skull. This would have also brought more pilgrims because it was a holy relic. Pilgrims would venerate the segment of skull that had been set in a golden likeness of his head encrusted with gold. The Black Death (1349 -51) in the fourteenth century also had its impact on the practice of pilgrimage in Canterbury. The potbreak in 1348-9 led to the shrine of St Thomas Becket benfiting finacialy through generous offerings. Around this time many may have gone to Canterbury in the hope that they would be healed. At this time when the Black Death was at its worse St Thomas saw some very generous offerings as well as St Mary who was in the undercroft However, in the 1400s how did the practice of pilgrimage develop? Offerings from pilgrims would add up to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½700 at the shrine alone itself. Was the practice of pilgrimage at Canterbury any different at all from its earlier stages ? It wasnt an ordered process anymore. It would be a much noisier atmosphere compared to the early stages of pilgrimage at Canterbury. Many pilgrims would visit Beckets shrine at the apex of steps and altars. For a few coins pilgrims had the opportunity to see the canopy of Beckets shrine raised up and this would reveal gold and silver ornaments and gems and rubies. After the pilgrims had seen the sights at Canterbury and spent a night perhaps at Eastbridge Hospital they would leave the next day with phials of Canterbury water. This was their proof to their neighbours that they had seen he famous tomb of Thomas Becket. However criticisms of pilgrimage to Canterbury soon developed and it is becoming more and more evident that people were lavishly spending their money on souvenirs. William Thorpe was charged with heresy by the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1407 because he expressed his views of how he believed that it was a disservice to God by wasting money and forming rleations with lascivious women in places such as Canterbury as well as Walsingham10 . Did the medieval pilgrims actually abuse pilgrimage or was their behaviour natural because of society at the time. This is certainly the reason as People in medieval times were eager to travel to new places and were probably overwhelmed by the sights and wanted to purchase items as proof that they had seen the famous tomb. However, the more people that came to Canterbury Cathedral the more revenue that was gained Diana Webb notes that in 1370 Simon Sudbury, bishop of London told a group of pilgrims that were on their way to Canterbury for the Jubilee indulgence that they would receive no benefit from it11. The group of pilgrims who had heard this accused the bishop of criticising the merits of Thomas Becket. They prophesised that the bishop would meet an evil end and he was killed by the rebels from Watt Tylers rebellion in 1381.It was also commonly believed that as saints were able to leave their graves so a man didnt have to come in contact with a relic to invoke them or even punished by them. Then when a woman called Aliza heard that a woman had lost their sight after visiting Beckets tomb she burst out laughing, saying, Others whom the Martyr receives in sickness, he sends back healed, you, however, went there well, and now return blind. While dissolved in laughter, Aliza was suddenly blinded, and eventually only partially cured12. Others may citicise motive such as going on pilgrimage for casual sexual experiences and some may use the journey in order to commit adultery. Is there any evidence however that pilgrimage was abused in this manner? Sarah hopper tells us that most of Chaucers pilgrims show to a certain degree their lack of moral values and spiritual discipline. This In 1500 a Venetian described how he saw the shrine the magnificence of the tomb of St Thomas the martyr, Archbishop of Canterbury, is which surpasses all belief13. This was certainly the case until the Reformation where it is written that twenty -six wagons were required to transport all the trasures away from Beckets shrine when Henry VIII destroyed it. After 1538 when Henry VIII destroyed Beckets shrine and his bones there was no longer the amazing shrine for pilgrims to see. However, pilgrimage had again changed before Henry VIII destroyed the shrine . In 1532 there was evidence in a decrease of revenue. In one of the sacristys books a note that the combined offerings at the cathedral added up to à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ 13 13s 3d and this about thirty times less than received at the shrine when pilgrimage activity at Canterbury was at its highest. After the Reformation, Canterbury saw a significant decrease in pilgrims visiting the Cathedral. In 1538 when Henry VIII destroyed Beckets shrine and his bones there was no longer the amazing shrine for pilgrims to see. Overall, pilgrimage to Canterbury had developed greatly in medieval times from Beckets martyrdom in 1170 to the Reformation in 1538. Early key episodes such as Beckets murder in 1170, his canonization in 1173 and his translation have seen a significant increase in pilgrims coming to Canterbury. The main motive seems to be in order to get healed because it is was news of his miracles spreading further that more people visited the tomb and then the shrine. Its most significant increase as suggested my most scholars such as Dianan Webb, was in 1220 when his bones were translated because of what medieval life was like this would have been a breathtaking and an amazing sight to behold. As time goes on motives may have been more based on seeing and just as an opportunity to travel. There are criticisms that have developed and even though we assume because of the large number of pilgrims that visited Canterbury and even though large sums were offered, it seems that because of large expenditures this did not make the cathedral much of a profit. When Henry VIII destroyed the shrine this meant that there wasnt much for people to see anymore seeing what seemed to be an end to pilgrimage at Canterbury. Overall, I believe it was Thomas Becket who William Langland describes a symbol of resistance to oppression of the Church by the secular power of his day14 which was the main reson that pilgrims ventured to Canterbury. 1 R. Finucane Miracles and Pilgrims- Introduction page 9 2 William Purcell- Pilgrims England Chapter 7 Canterbury and St Thomas p.167 3 Sarah Hopper- To be a Pilgrim The Medieval Pilgrimage Experience Chapter 5 p.60 4 The Pilgrims Way- John Adair page 68 5 The Pilgrims Way- John Adair page 40 6 Piers Plowman- William Langland passus V page 61 7 The Pilgrims Way- John Adair page 68 8 To be a pilgrim- Gods Magic Shrines and Miracles Sarah Hopper p.127 9 European Pilgrimage- Indulgences and Jubilees pg 73 10 To be a Pilgrim chapter Oppositions to Pilgrimage- Sarah Hopper page 162 11 Pilgrims and Pilgrimage Diana Webb- page 72 12 R. Finucane Miracles and Pilgrims- p.34-5 13 Pilgrims England Chapter 7 Canterbury and Thomas William Purcell page183

Study of existing Reverse Logistics framework Retail industry

Study of existing Reverse Logistics framework Retail industry Abstract: Reverse Logistics is a very complex and specialized area of any supply chain and it involves handling individual incoming parcels, opening and inspecting products, communicating with internal departments, customers and vendors and then directing products into disposition channels which will provide the highest value. Efficient Reverse Logistics system can transform an increasingly costly and complex returns management process into a competitive advantage. Integration of reverse logistics in specific retail sectors is critical for sustainability. The aim of this project work is to identify and examine the reverse logistics management in the retail industry in order to understand the existing application of reverse logistics and then propose relevant recommendations to improve efficiency in reverse logistics management. After critical analysis of the existing reverse logistics management in the selected retail sectors, potential ways to improve the efficiency of reverse logistics activ ities would be recommended in the selected retail sectors. Chapter 1: Introduction Twenty-years ago, supply chains were busy fine-tuning the logistics of products from raw material to the end customer. Products are obviously still streaming in the direction of the end customer but an increasing flow of products is coming back. This is happening for a whole range of industries, covering electronic goods, pharmaceuticals, beverages and so on. For instance distant sellers like e-tailers have to handle high return rates and many times at no cost for the customer. It is not surprising that the Reverse Logistics Executive Council has announced that US firms have been losing billions of dollars on account of being ill-prepared to deal with reverse flows (Rogers and Tibben-Lembke, 1999). While some actors in the chain have been forced to take products back, others have pro-actively done so, attracted by the value in used products. One way or the other, Reverse Logistics has become a key competence in modern supply chains. Many companies that, previously, did not devote muc h time or energy to the management and understanding of reverse logistics have begun to pay attention. Definition of reverse logistics In 1998 Stock defined reverse logistics as the role of logistics in product returns, source reduction, recycling, materials substitution, reuse of materials, waste disposal and refurbishing, repair, and remanufacturing (1998, p. 20). In a 1998 paper in the Journal of Business Logistics Carter and Ellram adopted a similar definition, calling it the process whereby companies can become more environmentally efficient through recycling, reusing, and reducing the amount of materials used (p. 85). If the focus of logistics is the movement of material from the point of origin toward the point of consumption (Council of Logistics Management 1999), then the focus of reverse logistics should be the movement of material from the point of consumption toward the point of origin. Rogers and Tibben-Lembke in their 1999 article emphasized a clear definition of reverse logistics drawn in essence from the Council of Logistics Managements definition given as follows, The process of planning, implementing, and controlling the efficient, cost effective flow of raw materials, in-process inventory, finished goods, and related information from the point of consumption to the point of origin for the purpose of recapturing or creating value or proper disposal (Rogers and Tibben-Lembke 1999, p. 2) This dissertation focuses on the reverse logistics activities in the retail industry with an analysis framework concerning the cost-benefit, visibility-information flow and efficiency. A reverse logistics flow is more reactive with much less visibility. The figure 1 depicts a typical reverse logistics information flow for the retail channel. For instance, when a consumer returns an item to a retail store, the store collects he items to be sent to a centralized sorting facility. At the time, information about the item and its condition may be entered into retailers information system and forwarded to the processing centre. Figure Reverse logistics in Retail: an epitome of information flow Delineation of reverse logistics definition Since Reverse Logistics is a relatively new research and empirical area, there are other literature terms, like reversed logistics, return logistics and retro logistics or reverse distribution, sometimes referring roughly to the same. In fact, the diversity of definitions with respect to recovery practices is a well-recognized source of misunderstandings both in research as in practice (Melissen and De Ron, 1999) In this dissertation I would like to remark that Reverse Logistics is different from waste management as the latter mainly refers to collecting and processing waste (products for which there is no new use) efficiently and effectively. The crux in this matter is the definition of waste. This is a major issue, as the term has severe legal consequences, for instance, it is often forbidden to import waste. Reverse Logistics concentrates on those streams where there is some value to be recovered and the outcome enters a (new) supply chain. Reverse Logistics also differs from green logistics as that considers environmental aspects to all logistics activities and it has been focused specifically on forward logistic, i.e. from producer to customer (Rodrigue et al., 2001). The prominent environmental issues in logistics are consumption of non-renewable natural resources, air emissions, congestion and road usage, noise pollution, and both hazardous and non-hazardous waste disposal (see Camm, 2 001). Finally, reverse logistics can be seen as part of sustainable development. The latter has been defined by Brundland (1998) in a report to the European Union as to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In fact one could regard reverse logistics as the implementation at the company level by making sure that society uses and re-uses both efficiently and effectively all the value which has been put into the products. The border between forward logistics (from raw materials to end user) and reverse logistics (from end user to recovery or to a new user) is not strictly defined as one can wonder about what raw materials are, or who the end user is, in modern supply chains. For instance, used/recovered glass is a substantial input for new production of glass. A holistic view on supply chains combining both forward and reverse logistics is embraced by the closed-loop supply chain concept (Guide and van Wassenhove, 2003). Recovery practices are framed within the supply chain, and the encircling aspect of the process as a whole is therefore stressed: having either 1) a physical (closed-loop): to the original user (see Fleischmann et al., 1997); or 2) a functional (closed-loop): to the original functionality. Thinking in term of closed-loop supply chains emphasizes the importance of coordinating the forward with the reverse streams. Actually, whenever both forward and reverse flows are involved, co-ordin ation has to be minded (see Debo et al., 2003). This happens, either in closed- or open-loops (the latter refers to when neither the original user nor original functionality are in the reverse logistics process). Aim and objectives of the project Reverse Logistics is a very complex and specialized area of any supply chain and it involves handling individual incoming parcels, opening and inspecting products, communicating with internal departments, customers and vendors and then directing products into disposition channels which will provide the highest value. Efficient Reverse Logistics system can transform an increasingly costly and complex returns management process into a competitive advantage. Integration of reverse logistics in specific retail sectors is critical for sustainability. The aim of this project work is to identify and examine the reverse logistics management in the retail industry in order to understand the existing application of reverse logistics and then propose relevant recommendations to improve efficiency in reverse logistics management. In order to achieve this objective the project work would involve Identifying the key retail sectors in which reverse logistics has and will have potential importance Examine the various reverse logistics activities in the selected retail sectors Analyze the effectiveness of reverse logistics management from the perspective of efficiency, profitability and environmental aspects Propose recommendations to improve the efficiency of reverse logistics management Report organization The dissertation consists of five main chapters which is organized as follows Chapter 1 introduces the research topics as well as the main objective of this study. Moreover, this chapter provides some of the background information about reverse logistics. It also provides a brief detail of the research methodology and the organization of the dissertation. Chapter 2 provides the basic knowledge of reverse logistics process together with key success factors and barriers of effective reverse logistics management are introduced. The previous papers are discussed in the literature review section. Chapter 3 discusses the information about research design and data collection method. The section elucidates the research approach and the relevant frameworks to be included in the research conduct. This section discusses about the methodology of how the reverse logistics management is analyzed to address the research questions. Chapter 4 discusses the analysis related to the reverse logistics trends and the effectiveness of reverse logistics management from the holistic perspective of cost, efficiency and environmental aspects. The key drivers and persistent barriers for reverse logistics management for the selected retail companies are discussed. Lastly, chapter 5 concludes the result of the finding and the analysis. The recommendation and the discussion about the future research are discussed. Chapter 2: Literature review Background Retailers constantly focus on strategies to gain competitive advantage and to improve financial performance. In doing so, emphasis is more frequently being placed on logistics, including tactical initiatives such as automatic replenishment programs, real-time information sharing, and advanced demand management techniques designed to improve internal efficiencies (Li 2002; Daugherty, Myers, Autry 1998; Seideman 2002).However, retailers also compete on the basis of effectiveness, striving for increased customer satisfaction. One competitive tactic used to enhance customer satisfaction includes the implementation of liberalized product returns policies. By taking a more consumer friendly approach in their return policies, retailers communicate a higher level of service to patrons, and thereby increase customer satisfaction with ultimate goals of higher sales and profitability (Coopersmith 1990; Krapfel 1988). As a result of return policy liberalization, acceptance of product returns is now commonplace; returns are reported to be as high as 10-15 percent of sales in some retail industries (Rogers Tibben-Lembke 1999), and are thought to be even higher in catalog and internet retailing, with typical return rates of up to 40 percent (Rogers, Lambert, Croxton, Garcia-Dastague 2002). However, the acceptance of returns places stress on the retailers logistics function. Whereas typical logistics activities are engineered to optimize flows from producer to consumer, reverse logistics activities move product, information, and currency in the opposite direction. While significant efforts have been expended in streamlining and optimizing retail logistics activities, the accomplishments associated with these activities do not always directly apply to the reverse logistics process. The forward movement of goods through the supply chain generally results in large receipts of goods at clearly defined in tervals (such as when inventory levels reach critical safety levels, or at pre-specified and scheduled times), with the ultimate sale executed in smaller quantities to end-users. On the other hand, reversed supply chain flows are less predictable, occurring at various times and for various reasons, and thus, the costs of returns handling can be high (Rogers et al. 2002; Stock 1998). One area of concern related to reverse logistics that has been largely ignored by academic research and practicing retailers is the financial implications of reverse logistics activities, especially as related to firm liquidity. When products reverse directions in a supply chain, it can happen quickly and without notice. While effective reverse logistics activities generally result in value reclamation and increased cash inflows, there can be periods where significant unexpected cash outflows occur. This is often due to the time lag between the moment the firm recovers the value from the returned product and the assumption of costs incurred in the reverse logistics process. Therefore, financial management of the reverse logistics process becomes salient, and needs to be a retailer focus on an ongoing basis. Reverse logistics process: A typical reverse chain process is shown in Figure 2. But a distinction should be made between different categories of returns: Commercial Returns Returns for which there is an immediate demand at another market location or segment. Possible causes: customer dissatisfaction, catalogue sales, overstocks etc. Commercial returns occur in the sales phase or shortly after. Repairable Returns Defects and suspect components (modules/parts) from field (exchange) repair activities or products under warranty. Customer is entitled to a replacement product. End-of-use Returns Returned products/components which are not of longer use to the original owner, but for which new customers can be found. Reasons: end-of-season, end-of-lease, trade-in, product replacements etc. End-of-life Returns Items of no remaining use, which are processed due to contractual or legislative obligations. These returns are often collected and processed according to legislative obligations. Recalls Products recalled by the manufacturer due to a condition or defect that could affect its safe operation. Work on a recall is completed at no cost to the product owner. Other types of returns, such as refillable units and reusable carriers, are not included in this study. Figure Reverse logistics process Returned goods often go through the following activities depending on the return type: Product Acquisition Retrieval of the product back from the market. The timing, quantity, quality and composition of returned product need to be managed in close cooperation with other supply chain parties. Collection Logistical activities (such as transportation, consolidation, transhipment and storage) to obtain the products back from the market and transport them to facilities involved in the other stages. Sorting, Testing Disposition The classification (according to quality and composition) of returns and determination stage of the route the product will take in the reverse chain. Market and strategic conditions are taken into account in the disposition decision. Recovery The process of recovering value from the returned product by re-use, repair, refurbishment, recycling or other types of recovery. Redistribution Sales Basically, no value recovery has materialised until the recovered products, component or materials are brought back into a forward supply chain. Review of Past research works: Financial aspects of RL: Raimer (1997) indicated that returns are, and always have been, a fundamental part of retailing. His estimate was that reverse logistics account for between 5 and 6% of total logistics costs in the retail and manufacturing sectors. Daugherty et al. (2001), in a survey of US catalogue companies, reported reverse logistics costs on average to be 9.49% of total logistics costs. Rogers and Tibben-Lembke (1998) identified returns for different industries, with figures being recorded of 50% (magazine publishing), 20-30% (book publishers), 18-35% (catalogue retailers) and 10-12% (electronic distributors). Returns of merchandise bought over the Internet are expected to escalate as online sales grow. Consequently, companies in many sectors are facing a change of customer interface possibilities and subsequent supply chain dynamics (Rowley 2000). Returns are high because customers purchase online items on trial until they can handle them physically. Moreover, in mail order, especially ladies f ashion, return rates of 60% are common (Wheatley 2002). Given this level of returns, it is important to recognise that reverse logistics can have a significant bottom line impact on a company, and the ability to address opportunities may depend ultimately on management perceptions of reverse logistics (Stock 1998, Mason 2002). Autry (2005) argued that managers need to realise that effective handling of reverse logistics transactions can result in economic and strategic benefits. In practice, some companies seem to ignore the significance of reverse logistics to their supply chain, some companies have gradually recognized its importance, whilst others review reverse logistics as a strategic variable. It has been suggested that innovator firms that develop an expertise in reverse logistics activities and recognize them as a set of business processes that add value can potentially generate revenue, improve customer satisfaction, achieve significant cost savings and deliver a competitive edge in their various markets (Stock 1998, Carter and E llram 1998). Given such potential benefits from developing reverse logistics processes, it is important to recognize the existence of barriers that may hinder the implementation of reverse logistics processes. Ravi and Shankar (2005), in a study of the automobile industry, identified 11 barriers to the application of reverse logistics. These include resistance to change, lack of appropriate performance measures, lack of training related to reverse logistics, lack of commitment by top management and lack of strategic planning. Dowlatshahi, S. (2008) in his cost-benefit analysis for reverse logistics management considered and analysed the relevant literature in RL and identified the present state of theory in RL regarding cost-benefit. The research methodology used is exploratory case study approach. The cost-benefit is analysed and evaluated in terms of specific sub-factors associated with it by use of two in-depth case studies. Two companies from different industries engaged in RL operations are considered. The analysis of these case studies resulted in propositions and insights regarding RL operations. Based on these insights, the cost-benefit sub-factors, propositions, and a framework for effective design and implementation of RL operations are provided. This framework determines the appropriate sub-factors and how the return process of products/parts with respect to cost-benefit works. In conclusion, the managerial implications and future research directions were provided. There are several parties involved in the management of the reverse logistics process and the way in which such interfaces are managed is crucial in both environmental and economic terms. As returns management becomes increasingly recognised as an area of supply chain importance, retailers are either developing in-house capabilities or outsourcing the operation to third-party logistics (3PL) providers (Krumwiede and Sheu 2002, Meade and Sarkis 2002, Hughes 2003). These supply chain interfaces occur in a number of different ways. For example, interfaces occur between retailers and manufacturers, between retailers and 3PLs and between end customers and retailers. There are many tensions occurring between these different players in the process. Currently, some companies prefer to build a separate infrastructure in order to facilitate the operation of the reverse logistics process. Other companies want to optimize the utility of their physical network by combining the reverse operation w ith the forward operation. In addition, centralized returns are a related possibility when companies are considering the construction of their physical network. Environmental aspects of RL: Environmentally friendly practices and the need to maintain sustainable development are important aspects in the debate surrounding reverse logistics. By not embracing sustainability, organizations face consequences in terms of increased economic and social liability (Savits 2002). Sustainable development embraces the triple bottom line philosophy of not compromising the future needs of society, the economy and the environment. In many reports on corporate social responsibility, sustainable transport is a significant feature with attempts to cut harmful emissions whilst maintaining economic operations. A driving force behind the search for improvements in sustainable distribution was the document published by the Department of Transport (1998) entitled A new deal for transport: better for everyone. Efficient integration of forward and reverse logistics has a significant part to play in this process. In this drive for sustainable distribution, it is important to recognize that account ing has a role to play. Mention has already been made of Corporate Social Responsibility Reports. There is a danger that traditional models of accounting and finance are actively supporting and encouraging unsustainable organizations and institutions (Gray 2002). Accountants need to be engaged in debates about environmental strategy, the institutional framework (government incentives) needs to support environmentally sound behaviour, and the change agents (such as environmental accounting) need to be embedded within the organization (Larrinaga-Gonzalez and Bebbington 2001). Reverse logistics management: Many tools exist to support the management of the reverse logistics process. The literature identifies mathematical models to support supply and transportation decisions (Du and Hall 1997). Also, the management of inventory can be supported through a range of mathematical models and enterprise resource planning (ERP) information systems (Boykin 2001, Teunter 2002). Hu et al. (2002) put forward a cost-minimisation model for minimising the total operating costs of a multi-time-step, multi-type hazardous waste reverse logistics system. Keeping with the theme of green supply chain management, Sheu et al. (2005) presented an integrated logistics operational model to co-ordinate the cross-functional product logistic flows and used-product reverse logistics flows in a green supply chain. Information communication technology (ICT) plays a significantly growing role in supporting reverse logistics operations and Daugherty et al. (2005) called for resources to be focused on developing informat ion technology. In recent years there have been a number of developments and improvements in dedicated reverse logistics software (De Brito et al. 2002). Developments in satellite tracking systems have also enabled vehicles to navigate better their way through congestion and to monitor and improve fuel consumption. The continuing development of ICT offers opportunities for significant economic and environmental benefits in the reverse logistics process. Drivers of reverse logistics: There are a number of drivers of reverse logistics and many of these actually occur as a result of product and service decisions taken at the design and planning stage of product and service provision. Interestingly, Sciarrotta (2003) illustrates how Philips Consumer Electronics place great emphasis on trying to prevent returns rather than dealing with them later. In the retail sector, however, strategic decisions concerning on-shelf availability together with a liberal returns policy amongst retailers are significant factors in the level of returns. Legislative factors (e.g. WEEE Directive to be implemented June 2006) are also becoming increasingly important, with new legislation focusing on the need to dispose of and recycle products in an environmentally friendly manner. In summary, the literature review has provided an overview of the issues that need to be considered when reflecting upon the management of reverse logistics processes. The significance of reverse logistics processes, in terms of both bottom line performance and environmental impact, has been highlighted in the literature. Also, the need to recognise the drivers of reverse logistics is highlighted together with the requirement to manage the interfaces between different members of the supply chain. Finally, the literature has identified numerous tools that can be used to support the reverse logistics process, and opened up the possibilities for using accounting information in this context to facilitate improved economic performance, supply chain efficiency and sustainability. Determinants of reverse logistics (Ravi et.al, 2005) Economic factors both directly and indirectly (de Brito Dekker, 2003), legislation (de Brito Dekker, 2003), corporate citizenship (de Brito Dekker, 2003; Rogers Tibben-Lembke, 1998) and environmental and green issues (Rogers Tibben-Lembke, 1998) are the four determinants of reverse logistics taken into account in this research. These are briefly described below. Economic factors Economics is seen as the driving force to reverse logistics relating to all the recovery options, where the company receives both direct as well as indirect economic benefits. It is seen that companies continually strive for achieving cost savings in their production processes. If a firm does reverse logistics well, it will make money (Stock, 1998). The recovery of the products for remanufacturing, repair, reconfiguration, and recycling can lead to profitable business opportunities (Andel, 1997). Reverse logistics is now perceived by the organizations as an investment recovery as opposed to simply minimizing the cost of waste management (Saccomano, 1997). A reverse logistics program can bring cost benefits to the companies by emphasizing on resource reduction, adding value from the recovery of products or from reducing the disposal costs. Guide and Wassenhove (2003) give an example of the US firm named ReCellular, which by refurbishing the cell phones, had gained economic advantage. Thus, the economic drivers of reverse logistics lead to direct gains in input materials, cost reduction, value added recovery and also in indirect gains by impeding legislation, market protection by companies, green image for companies and for improvement in customer/supplier relations. Legislation Another important driver for the reverse logistics is legislation. Legislation refers to any jurisdiction that makes it mandatory for the companies to recover its products or accept these back after the end of life of the product. These may include collection and reuse of products at the end of the product life cycle, shift waste management costs to producers, reduce volume of waste generated, and the use of increased recycled materials. For example, the Waste Electrical Electronics Equipment directive encourages a set of criteria for collection, treatment and recovery of waste electrical and electronic equipment and makes producers responsible for financing these activities (WEEE, 2003). There has also been a restriction on the use of hazardous substances in the production processes, which facilitates the dismantling, and recycling of waste electronics. A reverse logistics decision for the EOL computers should ensure that the end-of-life products are retired in a way that is compli ant with existing legislation. Corporate citizenship Another driver for the reverse logistics is the corporate citizenship that concerns a set of values or principles that impels a company or an organization to become responsibly engaged with reverse logistics activities. Reverse logistics activities can lead to increase of corporate image (Carter Ellram, 1998). A good example in this context would be of Paul Farrow, the founder of Walden Paddlers, Inc., whose concern of the velocity at which consumer products travel through the market to the landfill, pushed him to an innovative project of a 100-percent-recyclable kayak (Farrow, Johnson, Larson, 2000). In 1996, Hanna Andersson, a million direct retailer of infants and toddlers clothes developed a program called Hannadowns in which they distributed the childrens gently worn returned clothes to schools, homeless shelters, and other charities (Spence, 1998). Nike, the shoe manufacturer encourages consumers to bring their used shoes to the store where they had purchased them after their usage. They ship these back to Nike plant where these are shredded and made into basketball courts and running tracks. Nike also donates the material to the basketball courts and donates fund for building and maintaining these courts, thus enhancing the value of brand (Rogers Tibben-Lembke, 1998). It is seen from the last two examples that few firms are acting as good corporate citizens by contributing to the good of the community and assisting the people who are probably less fortunate than their typical customers. Environment and green issues Concern for the environment and green issues is also one of the drivers of reverse logistics. The reverse logistics lead to benefits of environment (Byrne Deeb, 1993; Carter Ellram, 1998; Wu Dunn, 1995). Hart (1997) proposes that the principle of the ecological footprint indicates the relevance of greening initiatives for countries. Reverse logistics has led to competitive advantage to companies which proactively incorporate environmental goals into their business practices and strategic plans (Newman Hanna, 1996). Managers are giving increasing importance to the environmental issues (McIntyre, Smith, Henham, Pretlove, 1998). The environmental management has gained increasing interest in the field of supply chain management. Handfield and Nichols (1999) mention greening as a critical future avenue in this area. Murphy, Poist, and Braunschweig (1995) have found that 60% in a group of 133 managers surveyed considered the issue of the environment to be a very important factor and 8 2% of them expected that the importance would increase in the years to come. A green image of producing environmentally friendly products has become an important marketing element, which has stimulated a number of companies to explore options for take-back and recovery of their products (Thierry, 1997). A reverse logistics operations for EOL computers should ensure that the environmental and green issues are taken into account. Summary of literature review: This brief overview of the literature provides a framework for addressing the research questions identified in the study. The literature covers the definition of reverse logistics, the scale of the problem, the bottom line impact and potential barriers, the drivers of reverse logistics, supply chain interfaces, methods suggested in improving the reverse logistics process management and importance of sustainability issues. Chapter 3 Methodology: Research objective: The aim of this project work is to identify and examine the reverse logistics management in the retail industry in order to understand the existing application of reverse logistics and then propose relevant recommendations to improve efficiency